Photo：Guenay Ulutuncok

Biotechnology and genetic engineering

Biotechnology is the term used to designate all technical applications that use biological systems，living organisms or products thereof to produce or change products or procedures for a specific purpose. Biotechnology thus embraces “classic” procedures such as brewing beer and producing yoghurt（fermentation）as well as microbiological procedures（e.g. synthesis of natural substances）and genetic engineering which aims to make specific changes to the DNA of an organism.

The term “modern biotechnology”as defined in the text of the Cartagena Protocol refers to the application of genetic techniques that overcome natural reproductive or recombination barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. GMOs，or “living modified organisms” as they are termed in the protocol，are defined as “any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology”.

The use of genetic engineering methods in agriculture is associated with highly disparate expectations. While research and industry have for 20 years been holding out the prospect of reducing hunger and poverty through the cultivation of genetically modified crops，advanced breeding methods that do not involve genetic engineering are now yielding more attractive alternatives. Many breeding successes were reported in 2007，including beans for dry and impoverished soils in Colombia，rice for land at risk of flooding in Bangladesh and wheat for dry soils in India.

The genetically modified plants that are now being grown-soya，maize，rape and cotton with resistance to herbicides and some insect species-are accredited by research and industry as well as by regulatory authorities as involving negligible risks for people and the environment. Critics point to inadequacies in some of the study methods used and draw more negative conclusions from the results.

The term biosafety is used to cover the entire range of instruments intended to avoid or reduce the risks to biological diversity and human health that arise from the release and use of genetically modified or ganisms（GMOs）. It covers the analysis of these risks as well as measures to control，manage and monitor them.

The introduction of GMOs can have far-reaching and undesirable ecological consequences，particularly in developing countries：the dissemination of artificial genes in the natural gene pool is an example.

This is a particular problem in centres of origin and diversity of food crops，since their wide variety of species and genes has important potential for longterm food security. Another negative impact is the possible effects of GMOs on other，non-target organisms such as wild animals and beneficial insects. The use of GMOs may also have negative socioeconomic and sociocultural consequences on account of the increased capital expenditure involved. Genetically modified seed commands higher prices；the use of insect-resistant plants requires special knowledge in order to avoid the development of insect lines that are resistant to the plants. GMO use can therefore be economically risky，particularly for small farmers in poor agricultural settings. Village social structures may also be adversely affected. There is a risk that women will be particularly disadvantaged by the use of modern technologies and the commercial acquisition of seed；in many cultures both activities are seen as male domains. Depending on the national legislation in place and agreements with the patent owners，the purchase of genetically modified seed can create new dependence as a result of built-in patents. Another risk is the replacement of export products such as cocoa butter or vanilla by products that can be produced industrially through the use of GMOs.

Photo：GTZ